SincetheemphasisofthepresentCongress,asweareinformedbytheOrganizingCommittee,ison“thecriticismoftheprevailingphilosophicideasinrelationtotheneedsoflife,”and“theanalysisoftheinfluenceofphilosophyuponpublicaffairs,”inthebriefreportIwillnottouchthetechnicalphilosophicalproblemsthatarediscussedintheacademiccircle,suchastheconstitutionoftheuniverse,orthevalidityofknowledge.IwillconfinemyselftowhatIconsidertobetheintellectualexpressionofthespiritofthetimeinChina,whichistheindication,ifnottheguidance,ofwhereChinaismoving.
Chinaisnowatapresentthatisnotthenaturalgrowthofherpast,butsomethingforceduponheragainstherwill.Inthecompletelynewsituationthatshehastoface,shehasbeenmuchbewildered.Inordertomakethesituationmoreintelligibleandtoadapttoitmoreintelligently,shehastointerpretsometimesthepresentintermsofthepastandsometimesthepastintermsofthepresent.Inotherwords,shehastoconnectthenewcivilizationthatshehastofacewiththeoldthatshealreadyhasandtomakethemnotalienbutintelligibletoeachother.Besidesinterpretation,thereisalsocriticism.Ininterpretingthenewcivilizationintermsoftheold,ortheoldintermsofthenew,shecannothelpbuttocriticizesometimesthenewinthelightoftheold,andsometimestheoldinthelightofthenew.ThustheinterpretationandcriticismofcivilizationsisthenaturalproductinChinaofthemeetingoftheWestandtheEastandiswhathasinterestedtheChinesemindandhasconstitutedthemaincurrentofChinesethoughtduringthelastfiftyyears.
Itmaybenoticedthattheinterpretationandcriticismofthecivilizationsnewandold,withinthelastfiftyyears,differindifferentperiodsaccordingtothedegreeoftheknowledgeoroftheignoranceofthetimeregardingthenewcivilizationthatcomesfromoutside.Generallyspeakingtherehavebeenthreeperiods.Thefirstperiodismarkedwiththeill-fatedpoliticalreformationwiththeleadershipofKanYu-weiundertheEmperorKuangSuin1898.KanYu-weiwasascholarofoneoftheConfucianistschools,knownastheKungYangSchool.Accordingtothisschool,Confuciuswasateacherwithdivinepersonality.Hedevisedaschemethatwouldcoverallstagesofhumanprogress.Therearemainlythreestages.Thefirstisthestageofdisorder;thesecond,thestageofprogressivepeace;andthethird,thestageofgreatpeace.Inthestageofdisorder,everyoneisforone"sowncountry.Inthestageofprogressivepeace,allthecivilizedcountriesareunitedinone.Inthestageofgreatpeace,allmenarecivilizedandhumanityisunitedinoneharmoniouswhole.Confuciusknewbeforehandallthesethataretocome.Hedevisedaccordinglythreesystemsofsocialorganization.AccordingtoKanYu-wei,thecommunicationbetweentheEastandtheWestandthepoliticalandsocialreformationsinEuropeandAmericashowthatmenareprogressingfromthestageofdisordertothehigherstage,thestageofprogressivepeace.Most,ifnotall,ofthepoliticalandsocialinstitutionsoftheWestarealreadyimpliedintheteachingofConfucius.KanYu-weiwastheleaderoftheNewMovementathistime.Butinhisopinion,whathewasdoingwasnottheadoptionofthenewcivilizationoftheWest,butrathertherealizationoftheoldteachingofConfucius.HewrotemanycommentariestotheConfucianclassics,readingintothemhisnewideas.BesidesthesehealsowroteabookentitledTheBookontheGreatUnity,inwhichhegaveaconcretepictureoftheutopiathatwillbecomeafactinthethirdstageofhumanprogressaccordingtotheConfucianistscheme.Althoughthenatureofthisbookissoboldandrevolutionarythatitwillstartleevenmostoftheutopianwriters,butKanYu-weihimselfwasnotautopian.Heinsistedthattheprogramhesetforthinhisbookcannotbeputintopracticeexceptinthehigheststageofhumancivilization,thelaststageofhumanprogress.Inhispracticalpoliticalprogramheinsistedtohaveaconstitutionalmonarchy.
OneofthecolleaguesofKanYu-weiintheNewMovementofthattimewasTanTse-tung,whowasamorephilosophicalthinker.HewroteabookentitledOnBenevolenceinwhichhealsotaughttheConfucianistteachingofthethreestagesofhumanprogress.Accordingtohim,althoughConfuciussetforththegeneralschemeofthethreestages,mostoftheteachingofConfuciuswasforthestageofdisorder.ItisthereasonwhyConfuciuswasoftenmisunderstoodasthechampionoftraditionalinstitutionsandconventionalmorality.TheChristianteachingofuniversalloveandtheequalityofmenbeforeGodisquiteneartheConfucianteachingforthestageofprogressivepeace.TheteachingthatisneartheConfucianteachingforthelaststageofhumanprogressisBuddhismwhichgoesbeyondallhumandistinctionsandconventionalmorality.
ThemainspiritofthistimeisthattheleaderswerenotantagonistictothenewcivilizationthatcamefromtheWest,nordidtheylackappreciationofitsvalue.ButtheyappreciateditsvalueonlyinsofarasitfitsintheimaginaryConfucianscheme.Theyinterpretedthenewintermsof,andcriticizeditinthelightof,theold.ItistobenoticedthatthephilosophicaljustificationoftheRevolutionof1911withtheresultoftheestablishmentoftheRepublicwasmainlytakenfromChinesephilosophy.ThesayingofMenciusthat“thepeopleisfirstimportant,thecountrythesecond,thesovereignunimportant”wasmuchquotedandinterpreted.TheteachingoftheEuropeanrevolutionarywriterssuchasRousseaualsoplayeditsrole,butpeopleoftenthoughtthattheyarerightbecausetheyagreewithMencius.
ThesecondperiodismarkedwiththeNewCultureMovementwhichreacheditsclimaxin1919.Inthisperiodthespiritofthetimeisthecriticismoftheoldinthelightofthenew.ChenTu-siuandHuShihweretheleadersofthecriticism.ThelatterphilosopherwroteAnOutlineoftheHistoryofChinesePhilosophy,ofwhichonlythefirstpartwaspublished.ItisinfactratheracriticismofChinesephilosophythanahistoryofit.ThetwomostinfluentialschoolsofChinesephilosophy,ConfucianismandTaoism,weremuchcriticizedandquestionedfromautilitarianandpragmaticpointofview.HeisforindividuallibertyanddevelopmentandthereforehefoundthatConfucianismiswrongintheteachingofthesubordinationoftheindividualtohissovereignandhisfather,tohisstateandhisfamily.HeisforthespiritofstruggleandconqueringnatureandthereforehefoundthatTaoismiswrongintheteachingofenjoyingnature.InreadinghisbookonecannotbutfeelthatinhisopinionthewholeChinesecivilizationisentirelyonthewrongtrack.
Inreactiontherewasadefenderoftheoldcivilization.SoonafterthepublicationofHuShih"sHistory,anotherphilosopher,LiangShu-ming,publishedanotherbookentitledTheCivilizationsoftheEastandtheWestandTheirPhilosophies.InthisbookLiangShu-mingmaintainedthateverycivilizationrepresentsawayofliving.Therearemainlythreewaysofliving:thewayaimingatthesatisfactionofdesires,thatatthelimitationofdesiresandthatatthenegationofdesires.Ifwechoosethefirstwayofliving,wehavetheEuropeancivilization;ifthesecond,theChinesecivilization;ifthethird,theIndiancivilization.Thesethreecivilizationsshouldrepresentthreestagesofhumanprogress.Menshouldatfirsttrytheirbesttoknowandtoconquernature.Afterhavingsecuredsufficientgroundfortheirplaceinnature,theyshouldlimittheirdesiresandknowhowtobecontent.Buttherearecertaininnercontradictionsinlifethatcannotbesettledwithinlife.Thereforethelastresortofhumanityisthewayofnegatingdesires,negatinglife.TheChineseandtheIndiansarewrongnotinthefactthattheyproducedcivilizationsthatseemtobeuseless.Theircivilizationsareofthefirstorderandinthemtherearesomethingthathumanityisboundtoadopt.TheChineseandtheIndiansarewronginthefactthattheyadoptedthesecondandthethirdwaysoflivingwithoutlivingthroughthefirst.Theyareontherighttrackbutatthewrongtime.ThusthedefenderoftheEastalsothoughttheremustbesomethingwronginit.Hisbookthereforeisalsoanexpressionofthespiritofhistime.
ThethirdperiodismarkedwiththeNationalistMovementof1926withtheresultoftheestablishmentofthepresentNationalGovernment.ThismovementwasoriginallyundertakenwiththecombinedforceoftheNationalistsandtheCommunists.SunYat-sen,theleaderoftheRevolutionof1911andofthismovement,heldthecommunisticsocietyasthehighestsocialideal.Buthewasnotacommunistinthathewasagainstthetheoryofclassstruggleandthedictatorshipoftheproletariat.Hethoughtthattheidealsocietyshouldbetheproductoflove,notthatofhatred.TheNationalistsandtheCommunistssoonsplit,andthelatterisbeingsuppressed.WiththismovementtheattitudeoftheChinesetowardsthenewcivilizationoftheWesttakesanewturn.ThenewcivilizationoftheWestasrepresentedinitspoliticalandeconomicalorganizations,onceconsideredastheveryperfectionofhumaninstitutions,isnowtobeconsideredasbutonestageofhumanprogress.Historyisnotclosed;itisinthemaking.Andwhatisnowconsideredasthefinalgoalthathistoryisachieving,thepeaceoftheworldandtheunityofman,looksmorecongenialtotheoldEastthantothemodernWest.Infact,ifwetaketheMarxiantheoryofhumanprogresswithoutitsmaterialisticexplanationofit,weseethatbetweenitandtheteachingoftheKungYangSchoolasrepresentedbyKanYu-weithereisnotwithoutsimilarity.IndeedTanTse-tung,inhisbookOnBenevolence,knowingnothingabouteitherHegelorMarx,alsopointedoutwhattheMarxistsmaycallthedialecticalnatureofhumanprogress.Hepointedoutthatthereissomesimilaritybetweenthefutureidealsocietyandtheoriginalprimitiveones.Butwhenweattainedtotheideal,wearenotreturningtotheprimitive,weadvanced.
Isthespiritofthisthirdperiodthesameasthatofthefirst?No,whiletheintellectualleadersofthefirstperiodwereinterestedprimarilyininterpretingthenewintermsoftheold,wearenowalsointerestedininterpretingtheoldintermsofthenew.WhiletheintellectualleadersofthesecondperiodwereinterestedinpointingoutthedifferencebetweentheEastandtheWest,wearenowinterestedinseeingwhatiscommontothem.WeholdthatifthereisanydifferencebetweentheEastandtheWest,itistheproductofdifferentcircumstances.Indifferentcircumstancesmenhavedifferentresponses.Ifweseetheresponsewiththecircumstancesthatproduceit,wemayprobablysaywithHegelthatwhatisactualisalsoreasonable.Thuswearenotinterestednowincriticizingonecivilizationinthelightoftheother,astheintellectualleadersofthefirstandthesecondperiodsdid,butinillustratingtheonewiththeothersothattheymaybothbebetterunderstood.WearenowinterestedinthemutualinterpretationoftheEastandtheWestratherthantheirmutualcriticism.Theyareseentobetheillustrationsofthesametendencyofhumanprogressandtheexpressionsofthesameprincipleofhumannature.ThustheEastandtheWestarenotonlyconnected,theyareunited.
Thesamespiritisalsoseenintheworkintechnicalphilosophy.TheChineseandEuropeanphilosophicalideasarecomparedandstudiednotwithanyintentionofjudgingwhichisnecessarilyrightandwhichisnecessarilywrong,butsimplywiththeinterestoffindingwhattheoneisintermsoftheother.ItisexpectedthatbeforelongwewillseethattheEuropeanphilosophicalideaswillbesupplementedwiththeChineseintuitionandexperience,andtheChinesephilosophicalideaswillbeclarifiedbytheEuropeanlogicandclearthinking.
ThisiswhatIconsidertobethecharacteristicsofthespiritoftimeinthethreeperiodswithinthelastfiftyyearsinChinesehistory.IfwearetoapplytheHegeliandialectic,wemaysaythatthefirstperiodisthethesis,thesecondtheantithesis,andthethirdthesynthesis.
[1]ReadbeforetheeighthInternationalPhilosophyCongress,Prague,1934.
