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WHY CHINA HAS NO SCIENCE—AN INTERPRETATION OF THE HISTORY AND CONSEQUENCES OF CHINESE PHILOSOPHY.[1]

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InoneofhisarticlespublishedlastyearinTheNewRepublic,ProfessorDeweysaid:

“Itmaybequestionedwhetherthemostenlighteningthinghe（thevisitor）candoforotherswhoareinterestedinChinaisnottosharewiththemhisdiscoverythatChinacanbeknownonlyintermsofitself,andolderEuropeanhistory.YetonemustrepeatthatChinaischangingrapidly;andthatitisasfoolishtogoonthinkingofitintermsofolddynasticChinaasitistointerpretitbypigeon-holingitsfactsinWesternconceptions.Chinaisanotherworldpoliticallyandeconomicallyspeaking,alargeandpersistentworld,andaworldboundnooneknowsjustwhere.”[2]

Itistrulyadiscovery.IfwecompareChinesehistorywiththehistoryofEuropeofafewcenturiesago,saybeforetheRenaissance,wefindthat,althoughtheyareofdifferentkinds,theyareneverthelessonthesamelevel.ButnowChinaisstilloldwhilethewesterncountriesarealreadynew.WhatkeepsChinaback?Itisanaturalquestion.

WhatkeepsChinabackisthatshehasnoscience.Theeffectofthisfactisnotonlyplaininthematerialside,butalsointhespiritualside,ofthepresentconditionofChineselife.Chinaproducedherphilosophyatthesametimewith,oralittlebefore,theheightofAthenianculture.Whydidshenotproducescienceatthesametimewith,orevenbefore,thebeginningofmodernEurope?ThispaperisanattempttoanswerthisquestionintermsofChinaherself.

Itisbeyondquestionthatgeography,climate,andeconomicconditionsareveryimportantfactorsinmakinghistory,butwemustbearinmindthattheyareconditionsthatmakehistorypossible,notthatmakehistoryactual.Theyaretheindispensablesettingsofadrama,butnotitscause.Thecausethatmakeshistoryactualisthewilltoliveandthedesireforhappiness.Butwhatishappiness?Peoplearefarfromagreeingintheiranswerstothisquestion.Itisduetothisfactthatwehavemanydifferentsystemsofphilosophy,manydifferentstandardsofvalue,andconsequentlymanydifferenttypesofhistory.AttheendofthispaperIshallventuretodrawtheconclusionthatChinahasnoscience,becauseaccordingtoherownstandardofvalueshedoesnotneedany.Butbeforewecometothisconclusion,wehavefirsttoseewhattheolderChinesestandardofvalueis.IndoingsoageneralsurveyofthehistoryofChinesephilosophyisindispensable.

Ⅰ.

AttheendoftheChowDynasty,theemperorslosttheirpowertocontrolthefeudalprinceswhobegantoregardthemselvesasindependent,andthelandwassubjectedtowarfare.Itwasanageofpoliticalconfusionindeed,butofgreatintellectualinitiative.ItwasequivalenttotheAthenianperiodofmentalvigorinEurope.

BeforeattackingthedifferenttypesofChineseideals,forthesakeofconvenienceIshallintroducetwowordswhichseemtometoindicaterespectivelytwogeneraltendenciesofChinesephilosophy:Theyare“nature”and“art,”or,totranslatemoreexactly,“nature”and“human.”ToillustratethisIcitefromChuangTseapassage:

“Whatisnature?Whatishuman?Thatoxandhorsehavefourfeetisnature;tohaltertheheadofahorseortopiercethenoseofanoxishuman.”[3]

Thus“nature”meanssomethingnatural;“human”meanssomethingartificial.Theoneismadebynature,theotherbyman.AttheendoftheChowDynastythereweretwotendenciesrepresentingthesetwoextremesandathirdrepresentingameanbetweenthetwo.Theonesaidthatnatureisperfectinitselfandthatmenareself-sufficientandneednohelpfromoutside;theothersaidthatnatureisnotperfectinitselfandthatmenarenotself-sufficientandneedsomethingoutsideinordertobebetter;thethirdmadeacompromise.Thesethreemaintypesofidealdidnotappearoneaftertheother,butratherarosesimultaneously,andexpressedatonetimethedifferentaspectsofhumannatureandexperience.Nowaccordingtothe“BookofHan,”attheendoftheChowDynastytherewereninebranchesofthought:Confucianism,Taoism,Moism,theSchoolofReligion,theSchoolofLaw,theSchoolofLogic,theSchoolofDiplomacy,theSchoolofAgriculture,andtheMiscellaneousSchool.ButamongthemthemostinfluentialatthattimewereConfucianism,Taoism,andMoism.InalmosteverybookwrittenattheendoftheChowDynasty,weareinformedthatthesethreewerestrugglingforexistence.ToillustratethisIcitefromthepolemicspeechesofMencius,agreatdefenderofConfucianismatthattime:

“Philosopheremperorsceasetoarise;theprincesofstatesgivereinstotheirlusts;andthescholarsindulgeinunrationaldiscussions.ThewordsofYangChuandMoTifilltheworld.ThediscourseofthepeoplehasadoptedtheviewseitherofYangorofMo.Yang"sdoctrineis:eachoneforhimself;thentherewillbenoking.Mo"sdoctrineis:loveallequally;thentherewillbenofather.Tohaveneitherkingnorfatheristobebeasts....IfthedoctrinesofYangandMoarenotstoppedandthedoctrineofsagesnotsetforth,thentheperversespeakingswilldeludethepeople,andstopthepathofbenevolenceandrighteousness.Whenbenevolenceandrighteousnessarestopped,beastswillbeledontodevourmenandmenwillthemselvesdevouroneanother.Iamalarmedbythesethingsandaddressmyselftothedefenceofthedoctrinesoftheformersages,andtoopposeYangandMo....”[4]

NowMoTiwasthefounderofMoism,andYangChuwasthediscipleofthefounderofTaoism,LaoTse.Thispassageseemstometobeavividpictureofthestateofwarexistingbetweenthesethreepowers.Theywerenotonlystrugglingforexistence,buteachoneofthemhadtheambitiontoconquerthewholeempire.

ToillustratetheirdoctrinesalittlemoreindetailIchooseLaoTse（570B.C.?—480B.C.?）,YangChu（440B.C.?—360B.C.?）,andChuangTse（350B.C.?—275B.C.?）torepresentTaoism;MoTse（MoTi,500B.C.?—425B.C.?）torepresentMoism;andConfucius（551B.C.—479B.C.）andMencius（372B.C.—289B.C.）torepresentConfucianism.ReferringtothethreetendencieswhichIjustmentioned,Taoismstandsfornature,Moismforart,andConfucianismforthemean.Itseemstomethatineveryaspectoftheirdoctrines,TaoismandMoismwerealwaysatthetwoextremesandConfucianisminthemiddle.Forinstance,withregardtotheirethicaltheories,MenciusagreesinarrangingtheminaschemeasIdo.Hesaid:

“ThedoctrineofthephilosopherYangwas:eachoneforhimself.Thoughhemightbenefitthewholeworldbypluckingoutasinglehair,hewouldnotdoit.ThedoctrineofthephilosopherMowas:toloveallequally.Ifbyrubbingsmoothhiswholebodyfromthecrowntotheheel,hecouldbenefittheworld,hewoulddoit.TseMoheldameanbetweenthem.Byholdingitwithoutleavingroomforthechangeablenessofcircumstances,heresembledtheminmaintaininghisonepointtotheexclusionofothers.”[5]

Itgoeswithoutsayingthattoholdthemeanwhileleavingroomforthechangeablenessofcircumstancesistheonlyrightwayofaction.ItisexactlytheteachingofConfucianism.Ishallmakeitcleareralittlelater.

Ⅱ.

TheteachingofTaoismcanbesummarizedinonephrase:“returningtonature.”TheomnipotentTaogiveseverythingitsownnature,inwhichitfindsitsownsatisfaction.Forinstance:

“Inthenorthernoceanthereisafish,calledtheLeviathan,manythousandli[6]insize.ThisLeviathanchangesintoabird,calledtheRukh,whosebackismanyliinbreadth.Withamightyoffortitrisesanditswingsobscuretheskylikeclouds.Attheequinox,thisbirdpreparestostartforthesouthernocean,theCelestialLake.Andinthe‘RecordofMarvels"wereadthatwhentheRukhfliessouthwards,thewaterissmittenforaspaceofthreethousandliaround,whilethebirditselfmountsuponatyphoontoaheightofninetythousandliforaflightofsixmonths"duration....Acicadalaughed,andsaidtoadove:‘NowwhenIflywithmymight,itisasmuchasIcandotogetfromtreetotree.AndsometimesItonotreach,butfalltothegroundmidway.What,then,canbetheuseofgoingupninetythousandliinordertostartfortheSouth!’”[7]

Thispassageiscitedfromachapterentitled“TheHappyExcursion”fromChuangTse"swork.ItshowsclearlythatboththegreatRukhandthesmallcicadaareperfectlysatisfied,eachwithhisownexcursion.Theycontinuetobesoaslongastheyliveinaccordancewiththeirnaturewithoutimitatingartificiallyeachother.Soeverythingisperfectinitsnaturalcondition.Artsimplydisturbsnatureandproducespain.For,asChuangTsesaid:

“Aduck"slegs,thoughshort,cannotbelengthenedwithoutpaintotheduck,andacrane"slegs,thoughlong,cannotbeshortenedwithoutmiserytothecrane,sothatwhichislonginnaturecannotbecutoff,northatwhichisshortbelengthened.Allsorrowsarethusavoided.”[8]

YangChu"segoism,therefore,isnotselfishintheordinarysenseofthatword.Hewassimplyteachingthateverymanshouldliveashisnaturewishestolive;butheneednotimposeuponotherswhathethinkstobegood.Sohesaid:

“Iftheancientbyinjuringasinglehaircouldhaverenderedaservicetotheworld,hewouldnothavedoneit;andhadtheworldbeenofferedtoasingleperson,hewouldnothaveacceptedit.Ifnobodywoulddamageevenahair,andnobodywouldhavetheworldforprofittheworldwouldbeinaperfectstate.”[9]

AnotherpassagefromChuangTse:

“‘Tellme,’saidLaoTse,‘inwhatconsistcharityanddutytoone"sneighbor?’‘Theyconsist,’answeredConfucius,‘inacapacityforrejoicinginallthings;inuniversallove,withouttheelementofself.Thesearethecharacteristicsofcharityanddutytoone"sneighbor.’‘Whatstuff!’criedLaoTse,‘doesnotuniversallovecontradictitself?Isnotyoureliminationofselfapositivemanifestationofself?Thereistheuniverse,itsregularityisunceasing;therearethesunandthemoon,theirbrightnessisunceasing;therearethestars,theirgroupingsneverchange;therearebirdsandbeasts,theyflocktogetherwithoutvarying;therearetreesandshrubs,theygrowupwardswithoutexception.Belikethese;followTao;andyouwillbeperfect.Why,then,thesestrugglesforcharityanddutytoone"sneighbor,asthoughbeatingadruminsearchofafugitive?Alas!Sir,youhavebroughtmuchconfusionintothemindofman.’”[10]

ThustheTaoistsseeonlythegoodaspectsofwhatiscalledthestateofnature.Everykindofhumanvirtueandsocialregulationistothemagainstnature.AsLaoTsesaid:

“Castoffyourholiness,ridyourselfofsagacity,andthepeoplewillbenefitahundredfold.Discardbenevolenceandabolishrighteousness,andthepeoplewillreturntofilialpietyandpaternallove.Renounceyourschemingandabandongain,andthethievesandrobberswilldisappear.Thesethreepreceptsmeanthatoutwardshowisinsufficient,andthereforetheybidusbetruetoourpropernature:toshowsimplicity,toembraceplaindealing,toreduceselfishness,tomoderatedesire.”[11]

Thegovernment,iftheTaoistsneedany,mustbeextremelaissez-faire.

“Asrestrictionsandprohibitionsaremultipliedinthecountry,thepeoplegrowpoorerandpoorer.Whenthepeoplearesubjectedtoovermuchgovernment,thelandisthrownintoconfusion.Whenpeopleareskilledinmanycunningarts,strangearetheobjectsofluxurythatappear.Thegreaterthenumberoflawsandenactments,themorethievesandrobberstherewillbe.”[12]

Governmentshouldimitatenature:

“TheTaoinitsregularcoursedoesnothingandsothereisnothingwhichitdoesnotdo.”[13]

ThisisbecauseTaoletseverythingworkforitselfinitsownway:

“Thereforethesagesaid:‘SolongasIdonothing,thepeoplewillworkouttheirownreformation.SolongasIlovecalm,thepeoplewillberightthemselves.SolongasIamfreefrommeddling,thepeoplewillgrowrich.SolongasIamfreefromdesire,thepeoplewillcomenaturallybacktosimplicity.’”[14]

Sowhatmanoughttodoistoaccordwithhisnatureandbecontentwithhisdestiny.ToillustratethispassivenatureofTaoismIcitefromChuangTse:

“TseLaifellill....TseLiwenttoseehim.Leaningagainstthedoor,heaskedthedyingman:‘GreatindeedistheCreator!WhatwillHenowmakeyoutobecome?WherewillHetakeyouto?WillHemakeyoutheliverofarate?Oranarmofaninsect?’TseLaianswered:‘Whereaparenttellsasontogo,East,West,South,orNorth,hesimplyfollowsthecommand.TheYinandYang（thetwoforcesofnature）aremoretoamanthanhisparentsare.IftheyhastenmydeathandIdonotquietlysubmittothem,Ishallbeobstinateandrebellious,buttheyarenotmistaken.Thegreatmassofnaturemakesmetobemovedwiththebody,tobebusywithlife,tobeateasewitholdage,andtobeatrestwithdeath.Thereforewhathasmademylifeagoodmakesalsomydeathagood.’”[15]

Knowledgeisofnouseandcandoonlyharm:

“Ourlifeislimited,butknowledgeisnotlimited.Withwhatislimitedtopursuewhatisnotlimitedisaperilousthing.”[16]

WhatweneedandoughttoknowandtogetistheTao,butitisinus.ItisliketheGodofthepantheisticphilosophy.Sowhatweoughttodoistoknowandtocontrolourselves:

“Hewhoknowsothersisclever,buthewhoknowshimselfisenlightened.Hewhoovercomesothersisstrong,buthewhoovercomeshimselfismightierstill.”[17]

Besides,wehavetouseanaltogetherdifferentmethodtoknowandtogettheTao.LaoTsesaid:

“Hewhodevoteshimselftoknowledgeseeksfromdaytodaytoincrease.HewhodevoteshimselftoTaoseeksfromdaytodaytodiminish.Hediminishesandagaindiminishestillhearrivesatdoingnothing.Havingarrivedatthepointofdoingnothing,thereisnothingwhichhedoesnotdo.”[18]

AsTaoisalreadyinus,itcanbeknownnotbyaddingsomethingartificiallytoit,butbytakingawaywhathasbeenartificiallyaddedtoitbefore.ThatiswhatLaoTsemeantby“diminish.”SotheargumentsofthosewhoweresimplyinterestedinintellectualexerciseweretotheTaoistsoflittlevalue.ThusinChuangTse"sbookonepassagereads:

“Towearoutone"sintellectintryingtoarguewithoutknowingthefactthattheargumentsarethesameiscalled‘threeinthemorning.’‘Whatisthreeinthemorning?’askedTseYu.‘Akeeperofmonkeys,’repliedTseChi,‘saidoncetohismonkeyswithregardtotheirchestnuts,thateachwastohavethreeinthemorningandfourinthenight.Buttothisthemonkeyswereveryangry,sothekeepersaidthattheymighthavefourinthemorningandthreeinthenight,withwhicharrangementtheywereallwellpleased.’”[19]

ThusTaoismstoodfornatureasagainstart.

Ⅲ.

ThefundamentalideaofMoismisutility.Thesanctionofvirtueisnotthatitisnatural,butthatitisuseful.InthebookbearingMoTse"snameonepassagereads:

“Righteousnessiswhatisbeneficialtous.Benefitisthatwhichwearegladtohave.”[20]

ThusMoTse"spositioninethicswasessentiallythatofutilitarianism.Hewasalsoapragmatistandanempiricist.Hesaid:

“Forargumenttheremustbeastandard.Ifwearguewithoutastandard,itisjustlikefixingmorningandnightonamovingcircle:wecannotknowclearlywhetheritisrightorwrong,usefulorharmful.Fortestinganargumenttherearethreestandards.Whatarethesethreestandards?Theyare:totraceit,toexamineit,andtouseit.Wheretraceit?Traceitintheauthorityoftheancientphilosopherkings.Whereexamineit?Examineitinthefactswhichthecommonpeopleseeandhear.Whereuseit?Putitintopracticeandseewhetheritisusefulforthebenefitofthecountryandthepeople.Thesearethethreestandardsforargument.”[21]

Amongthesethreestandards,thethirdseemstobethemostimportant.SoMoTsetaughtthedoctrineofuniversallove,becauseitseemedtohimtobethemost“usefulforthebenefitofthecountryandthepeople.”Tolethimspeakforhimself,Iselectfromthechaptersentitled“UniversalLove”:

“Thebusinessofthebenevolentmanmustbetostrivetopromotewhatisadvantageoustotheworldandtotakeawaywhatisinjurioustoit.Atthepresenttime,whataretobeaccountedthemostinjuriousthingstotheworld?Theyaresuchastheattackingofsmallstatesbythegreatones;theinroadonsmallfamiliesbythegreatones;theplunderoftheweakbythestrong;theoppressionofthefewbythemany....Letusaskwhencealltheseinjuriousthingsarise.Isitfromlovingothersoradvantagingothers?Itmustbereplied‘No’;anditmustlikewisebesaid‘Theyariseclearlyfromhatingothersanddoingviolencetoothers.’Dothosewhohateanddoviolencetoothersholdtheprincipleoflovingall,orthatofmakingdistinctionsbetweenmanandman?Itmustbereplied,‘Theymakedistinctions.’Sothenitistheprincipleofmakingdistinctionsbetweenmanandman,whichgivesrisetoallthatismostinjurioustotheworld.Onthisaccountweconcludethatthatprincipleiswrong....Thereisaprincipleoflovingallwhichisabletochangethatwhichmakesdistinctions....Iftheprinceswereasmuchforthestateofothersasfortheirown,whichoneamongthemwouldraisetheforcesofhisstatetoattackthatofanother?Heisforthatasmuchasforhisown....Sothenitistheprincipleofuniversal,mutuallove,whichgivesrisetoallthatismostbeneficialtotheworld.Onthisaccountweconcludethatthatprincipleisright....Othersmaysay,‘Itisgood,butitisextremelyhardtobecarriedintopracice.’Buthowcanitbegood,andyetincapableofbeingputintopractice?...Iapprehendthereisnooneunderheaven,manorwoman,howeverstupid,thoughhecondemnstheprincipleofuniversallove,butwouldatsuchatime（themostdangeroustime）,makeonewhohelditthesubjectofhistrust....Iapprehendthereisnooneunderheaven,howeverstupid,manorwoman,thoughhecondemnstheprincipleofuniversallove,butwouldatsuchatime（themostdangeroustime）,prefertobeunderthesovereignwhoholdsit.”[22]

Thisshowsthatthedoctrineofuniversalloveisnotonlyadvantageoustoothers,buttothoseaswellwhoactaccordingtothisprinciple.InthebookthatbearsMoTse"snamethreechaptersaredevotedtodescribingthedisadvantagesofwar.Warisnotonlyinjurioustotheconquered,buttotheconqueroraswell.Evenoccasionallysomeofthestatesmaymakeprofitattheexpenseofothers,itstillcannotbejustified.Hecomparedthistomedicine.Thereismedicine;iftenthousandpeopleuseitandonlyfourorfivearebenefited,itissurelynotagoodmedicine.MoTsestoodforthegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber.

Healso,unliketheTaoist,knewtheimperfectionofhumannature.Mankindistooshortsightedtoseeitsowninterests.Mencannotbeconvincedthatlovingothersisadvantageoustothemselvesandselfishnesscandoonlyharm.So,MoTse,againunliketheTaoist,sawtheneedofauthoritiestoregulatehumanaction.HetaughtthatthereisapersonalGod.Menshouldloveeachother,notonlybecausesodoingisadvantageous,butalsobecauseitisthewillofGod.Evenbeliefintheexistenceofspiritsandghostsastheinvisiblewatchersovermen"sconductisupheldasavaluableaidinmaintainingmorality.

ThefunctionandauthorityofthestatearelikewiseemphasizedbyMoTseasaidstoarightlife:

“Inancienttimes,whenmankindjustbegantoentertheworldandhadnopoliticalassociation,everyonehadhisownrighteousness.Iftherewasoneman,therewasonerighteousness;iftwo,tworighteousnesses;iften,tenrighteousnesses;themoremen,themorerighteousnesses.Everyoneconsideredhisownrighteousnessasrightandothers"aswrong.Therefore,peoplewereagainsteachother....Theworldwasindisorderandpeoplewerelikebirdsandbeasts.Theyknewthatthereasonthattheworldwasindisorderwasthattherewasnorightleader;therefore,theyelectedawiseandablemantobetheiremperor....Thentheemperororderedthepeople,saying:‘Ifyouhearwhatisgoodandwhatisnotgood,tellallofthemtoyoursuperior.Whatyoursuperiorconsidersasright,allofyoumustconsiderasright;whatyoursuperiorconsidersaswrong,allofyoumustconsideraswrong.’”[23]

ThisisaltogetherdifferentfromtheTaoisticconceptionofthestate.Besidesthis,MoTsealsoemphasizedtheimportanceofeducation.Inthebookthatbearshisname,onechapterisentitled:“WhatIsDyed,”inwhichonepassagereads:

“MasterMoTsesawonedyeingsilk.Hesighedandsaid:‘Dyedinblue,thesilkbecomesblue;dyedinyellow,thesilkbecomesyellow.Whatitenterschanges;itchangesitscoloraccordingly.Byenteringfivetimes,itisturnedintofivecolors.Thereforeitisnecessarytotakecareofthedyeing.’”[24]

Followingthishecitedalonglistoffactstoshowhowsomemenbecamegoodbyassociatingwithgoodmen,andothersbadbyassociatingwithbadmen.Humannatureseemstohimtobeatabularasaanditscolordependsentirelyonhowonedyesit.ThisagainisverydifferentfromtheTaoisticconceptionofhumannature.

IncontrastwithTaoismMoTsedeniedpredestination.RewardandpunishmenteitherbyGodorbythestatearetheresultsofmen"svoluntaryaction.Ifthewillisnotfree,menwillnotberesponsiblefortheirbaddoing,andwillnotbeencouragedtodogood.Theywillthink,asMoTsesaid:

“Hewhoispunishedispredestinedtobepunishedbutnotbecauseheisbad.Hewhoisrewardedispredestinedtoberewardedbutnotbecauseheisgood.Thereforeiftheybecomeprinces,theywillnotberighteous;iftheybecomeministers,theywillnotbeloyal....”[25]

ThusMoTseworkedoutmanydevicesformakingpeoplegood.Hisidealistohavethegreatestnumberofpopulation,withthenecessaryexternalgoods,livingtogetherpeacefullyandlovingeachother.MoTsesaid:

“Whenaphilosophergovernsacountry,thewealthofthatcountrycanbedoubled;whenhegovernstheworld,thewealthoftheworldcanbedoubled.Itisdoublednotattheexpenseofothers,butbyutilizingthecountryandbycuttingoffuselessexpenditures....Whatisitthatisnoteasytobedoubled?Itisthepopulationonlythatisnoteasytobedoubled.Butthereisawaytodoubleit.Theancientphilosopherkingshadalawsaying:‘Whentheboyistwentyyearsold,hemusthaveahome;whenthegirlisfifteenyearsold,shemusthaveherman....’”[26]

ThisisMoTse"sidealofprogress.Progressispossiblenotbystruggleandcompetition,butbyuniversalloveandmutualhelp.TothisImustaddthattheidealofMoTseisnotaPlatonicone.MoTsewastoorealistictobecontenttoputhispatterninheaven.Hewasreadytofightagainstanythingthatseemedtohimtobeincompatiblewiththeincreaseofwealthandpopulation.Hetaughteconomyofexpenditurebecause,ashesaid:

“Philosopherkingsdonotdothosethingswhichincreasetheexpenditurebutnottheprofitofthepeople.”[27]

Hewasalsoagainstmusicandfineart,becausetheyhavenothingtodowiththefactthat:

“Peoplehavethreetroubles:thosewhoarehungrybuthavenofood;thosewhoarecoldbuthavenoclothes;andthosewhoaretiredbutcannotrest.”[28]

HewasalsoagainsttheConfucianistteachingoftheluxuriouswayofburyingthedeadandthethreeyears"mourningonoccasionofthedeathofparents.Becausepeopleoughtnottospendtheirtime,energy,andwealthinthisway;indoingso,

“Thecountrymustbecomepoor;thepopulationmustbecomesmall;andpoliticsmustbecomecorrupted.”[29]

ThesestepsprobablyrepresentthedecisiveattitudeofMoismtoopposenature.Indeedifoneseesthingswhollyfromthepointofviewofintellect,musicandfineartarereallyofnouseatall.Ifweknowthatdeathisanaturalprocess,whatistheuseofmourning?SuenTsesaid:

“MoTsewasblindedbyutility,anddidnotknowrefinement.”[30]

Thiscriticismisquitejustified.

Anyway,MoTsewascertainlyaphilosopherwhotaughtmentofindhappinessintheexternalworld.Hedidnotthink,astheTaoistsdid,thatmenaremosthappyinthestateofnature,andthatwhatmenneedandshoulddoistoreturntonature,insteadofturningawayfromit.Heknew,incontrastwithTaoists,thatmeninnatureareimperfect,foolish,andweak;that,inordertobeperfect,strong,andwise,theyneedthehelpofthestate,ofvirtue,andofapersonifiedGod.Soinhisphilosophytherewasastrongsenseofprogressandofthefuture.Inthebookbearinghisnameonepassagereads:

“PungChingShinTsesaid:‘Thepastcanbeknown,butnotthefuture.’MoTsesaid:‘Supposethatyourparentsareataplaceonehundredlifromhere,andmeetsometrouble;theyaskyoutogotothemwithinoneday;ifyoucandoso,theywillbealive;ifnot,theywilldie.Nowthereisagoodcarwithagoodhorse,andabadhorsewithacarwithsquarewheels.Iaskyoutochoosebetweenthem.Whichonewillyoutake?’‘ItakethegoodcarwiththegoodhorseinorderthatImaybeabletoarriveearlier’wastheanswer.MoTsesaid:“Thenwhydoyousaythatyoucannotknowthefuture?’”[31]

Thisisindeedagoodillustrationofutilizingthepasttocontrolthefuture.Thespiritisscientific.InthebookbearingMoTse"snametherewereseveralchaptersdevotedtowhatwenowcalllogicordefinitions.TheymustbetheproductofMoTse"sfollowers,ifnotofthemasterhimself.Theycontainmanydefinitionswhicharesometimesinterestingandscientific.Forinstance:

“Spaceisthatthatcoversdifferentplaces.Durationisthatthatcoversdifferenttimes.Causeisthataftergettingwhichathingcanbe.Circleisthatonemiddlehasthesamelengthtoallsides.Energyisthatbywhichaformarises.”[32]

Therearemanyotherslikethese,whichseemtobegermsofscience.IndeedMoTsewasfamousalsoformakingmachinestodefendthecity-wall,towhichseveralchaptersinthebookbearinghisnamearedevoted.

ThisisallIwishtosaytosupportmystatementthatMoismstoodforartasoveragainstnature.Nowletusturntothethirdsystem,Confucianism.

Ⅳ.

Confucianism,asIsaidbefore,isameanbetweenthetwoextremestandpointsofnatureandart.ButatthetimeimmediatelyafterConfucius,thereweretwotypesofConfucianism.Theone,representedbyMencius,stoodnearertotheextremeofnature;theother,representedbySuenTse,stoodnearertothatofart.TheteachingofConfuciushimselfwasnearertotheextremeofnature.SoafterwardsMenciuswasandisconsideredasthetrueandlegalheirofConfucianism.HereIfollowtraditioninchoosingConfuciusandMenciustorepresentConfucianism,butshalldiscussSuenTseinanotherplaceandshallconsiderhimasanotherphilosopherinChinesehistorywhoattemptedtodeveloptheartlineofChinesethought.

Confucius,asMenciussaid,wasa“sageoftime.”

“Whenitwaspropertogoawayquickly,hedidso;whenitwaspropertodelay,hedidso;whenitwaspropertokeepretirement,hedidso;whenitwaspropertogointooffice,hedidso:—thiswasConfucius.”[33]

SoConfuciusemphasizeddiscriminationofsituations.ItisnotafirstquestionwhetherIshouldloveapersoninsuchandsuchawayornot;thefirstquestioniswhothatpersonis.Menciussaid:

“Inregardtotheinferiorcreatures,thesuperiormaniskindtothem,butnotloving.Inregardtopeoplegenerally,heisfriendlytothem,butnotaffectionate.Heisaffectionatetohisrelatives,andfriendlytopeoplegenerally.Heisfriendlytopeoplegenerally,andkindtocreatures.”[34]

Hesaidagaininanotherplace:

“Hereisaman,andastrangerbendshisbowtoshoothim.Iwilladvisehimnottodoso,butspeakingcalmlyandsmilingly,fornootherreasonbutthatheisnotrelatedtome.Butifmybrotherbebendinghisbowtoshoottheman,Iwilladvisehimnottodoso,weepingandcryingthewhile,fornootherreasonbutthatheisrelatedtome.”[35]

Thuswasdevelopedthedoctrineoflovingwithadifferenceofdegree,asoveragainstthatofuniversalloveontheonehandandthatofeachforhimselfontheother.Weoughttolovewithdifferenceofdegree,becauseitishumannature.ThusonepassageintheworkofMenciusreads:

“ETsesaid:‘Accordingtotheprincipleofthelearned,wefindthattheancientsactedtowardsthepeopleasiftheywerewatchingoveraninfant.Whatdoesthisexpressionmean?Tomeitseemsthatwearetoloveallwithoutdifferenceofdegree;butinpracticewebeginwithourparents.’SeuTsereportedthistoMencius.Menciussaid:‘DoesETsereallythinkthataman"saffectionforthechildofhisbrotherismerelylikehisaffectionforthatofhisneighbor?...Heavengivesbirthtocreaturesinsuchawaythattheyhaveoneroot,andETsemakesthemtohavetworoots.”[36]

Humannature,accordingtotheteachingofConfucianism,isessentiallygood.ThisseemstohavebeenatraditionevenbeforethetimeofConfucius.Becausehumannatureisoriginallygood,sothesanctionofvirtueisitsbeingadmirableanddesirable.ThusMenciussaid:

“Men"smouthsagreeinhavingthesamerelishes;theirearsagreeinenjoyingthesamesound;theireyesagreeinrecognizingthesamebeauty;shalltheirmindsalonebewithoutthatwhichtheysimilarlyapprove?Itis,Isay,reasonandrighteousness.Thesagesonlyapprehendedbeforeuswhatourmindalsoapproves.Thereforereasonandrighteousnessareagreeabletoourmind,justasgoodfoodisagreeabletoourmouth.”[37]

Inanotherplacehesaid:

“Whatisdesirableiswhatiscalledgood.”[38]

But,althoughhumannatureisoriginallygood,itisnottobeinferredthatmenarebornperfect.Theycannotbeperfectuntiltheirinnatereasoniscompletelydeveloped,andtheirlowerdesiresarewhollytakenaway.ThusMenciussaid:

“Thefeelingofcommiserationisthebeginningofbenevolence;thefeelingofshameanddislikeisthebeginningofrighteousness;thefeelingofmodestyandcomplaisanceisthebeginningofpropriety;thefeelingofapprovinganddisapprovingisthebeginningofwisdom....Sinceallmenhavethesefourfeelingsinthemselves,letthemknowhowtogivethemtheirdevelopmentandtheircompletion,andtheissuewillbelikethatoffirewhichhasbeguntoburn,orthatofaspringwhichhasbeguntofindvent.Iftheyhavetheircompletedevelopment,theywillsufficetoloveandtoprotectallwithinthefourseas.Iftheybedeniedtheirdevelopment,theywillnotsufficeforamantoservehisparents.”[39]

Andtodevelopreasonontheonehandistodiminishthelowerdesiresontheother:

“Tonourishthemindthereisnothingbetterthantomakethedesiresfew.”[40]

Soinordertodevelopmen"snaturalfaculties,theyneedsomepositiveorganization.ThesimpleTaoisticwayofreturningtonatureisnotsufficienthere.Thereforethestateisindispensable:

“IntheBookofHistoryitissaid:‘Heavenhavingproducedthepeopleinthelowerearth,appointedforthemrulersandteachers.’”[41]

Butteachersandrulersarenottobeseparated.MostoftheChinesepoliticalidealsarethesameasPlato"s.Kingmustbephilosopher;philosophermustbeking.ThisisespeciallyemphasizedintheConfucianist"sconceptionofthestate.Thechiefdutyofthestateisfirsttomaintainacertainamountofwealthtoenablepeopletolive,andthentoteachthem.ThusonepassageintheConfucianAnalectsreads:

“WhentheMasterwenttothestateofWei,YenYewactedasthedriverofhiscarriage.TheMasterobserved:‘Hownumerousarethepeople!’Yewsaid:‘Sincetheyarethusnumerous,whatshallbedoneforthem?’‘Enrichthem,’wastheanswer.‘Andwhentheyhavebeenenriched,whatmoreshallbedone?’TheMastersaid:‘Teachthem.’”[42]

Moreoverinastate,teachingismoreimportantthanenriching.IntheConfucianAnalectsanotherpassagereads:

“TheDukeKingofTseaskedConfuciusaboutgovernment.Confuciusreplied:‘Theprinceisprince,theministerisminister,thefatherisfather,andthesonisson.’‘Good,’saidtheduke,‘If,indeed,theprincebenotprince,theministernotminister,thefathernotfather,andthesonnotson,althoghthereisfood,canweenjoyit?’”[43]

Asfortheindividual,externalthingsaredeterminedbydestiny.ThereforeintheConfucianAnalectsweread:

“Deathandlifehavetheirdeterminedappointment;richesandhonorsdependonHeaven.”[44]

AndMenciussaid:

“Whenwegetbyourseekingandlosebyourneglecting;inthiscaseseekingisofusetogetting,andthethingsoughtforissomethingwhichisinourselves.Whenourseekingisconductedproperly,butthegettingisonlyasdestinydetermines,inthiscaseourseekingisofnousetogetting,andthethingsoughtforisthatwhichiswithoutus.”[45]

Therefore,whatmanshoulddoistoseekwhatisinhimself.Thefactthatheisnotabletocontrolwhatisoutsidehimdoesnotmakehimimperfect;heisgivenbyHeaventhegodlyreasonwithinhim,inwhichhecanfindtruthandbehappy.SoMenciussaid:

“Hewhohasexhaustedallhismind,knowshisnature.Knowinghisnature,heknowsHeaven.Topreserveone"smindandnourishone"snature,isthewaytoserveHeaven.Whenneitheraprematuredeathnoralonglifemakesanydifference,buthewaitsinthecultivationofhischaracterforwhatevercomes;thisisthewayinwhichheestablisheshisHeaven-ordainedbeing.”[46]

Inanotherplacehesaid:

“Allthingsarealreadyinus.Turnourattentiontoourselvesandfindtherethetruth;thereisnogreaterdelightthanthat.”[47]

InthispointConfucianismismuchnearerTaoismthanMoism.Happinessandtruthareinourmind.Itisinourownmind,notintheexternalworld,thatwecanseekforhappinessandtruth.Weareself-sufficient,ifonlywedevelopourinnatepower.Tolearnistocultivateourcharacteraccordingtoourrationalnature,nottomakeintellectualexerciseofsimplytoremembermechanicallywhatthebookssaid.

WehavenowcompletedourgeneralsurveyofthethreeoriginaltypesofChineseideals.Wehaveseenthatinthetheoryofexistence,thepowerthatgovernstheuniverse,toTaoismistheomnipotentTaoorNature,toMoismisapersonifiedGod,andtoConfucianismistheHeavenlyReason.Inthetheoryofthestate,Taoismneededa“laissezfaire”government,ifany;Moismneededthestatetoregulatethedifferentindividualopinions,andConfucianismneededittodevelopmen"smoralfaculties.Inthetheoryoflife,Taoismsaidthathumannatureisperfectinitselfandthateveryoneshouldonlyliveinaccordancewithone"sownnature;Moismsaidthathumannatureisnotperfectinitself,andthatoneshouldloveallequallyinordertomakepossibletheprosperityofall;Confucianismsaidthatalthoughhumannatureisgood,oneneedseffortsto“develop,”to“nourish,”andto“complete”it,andthatalthoughoneshouldloveothers,thedifferenceofnaturalrelationshouldbeconsidered.Inthetheoryofeducation,Taoismtaughtareturntonature,Moismtaughtcontroloftheenvironment,andConfucianismtaughtthewayofself-realization.TheseseemtometohavejustifiedmystatementthatinthehistoryofChinesethoughtTaoismstoodfornature,MoismforartandConfucianismforthemean.Wehaveseenthattheystruggledbitterlyforexistence.TheresultofthatgreatwarwasthecompletefailureofpoorMoism,whichsoondisappearedonceforall.ThecausesofthefailureofMoismwereunknown;but,Ithink,thechiefcausemusthavebeenthedefectofthesystemitself.ToillustratethisIcitefromChuangTseapassage:

“MoTsecomposedthetreatise‘AgainstMusic’andthesubjectofanotherwascalled‘EconomyinExpenditure.’Hewouldhavenosinginginlife,andnowearingofmourningontheoccasionofdeath.Heinculcateduniversalloveandacommonparticipationinalladvantages,andcondemnedfighting....Theteachingofsuchlessonscannotberegardedasaproofofhisloveformen;hispracticingtheminhisowncasewouldcertainlyshowthathedidnotlovehimself.ButthishasnotbeensufficienttooverthrowthedoctrineofMoTse.Notwithstanding,menwillsing,andhecondemnssinging;menwillwail,andhecondemnswailing;menwillexpresstheirjoy,andhecondemnssuchexpression.Isthistrulyaccordingtomen"snature?Throughlifetoil,andatdeathniggardliness;causingmensorrowandmelancholyanddifficulttobecarriedintopractice,Ifearitcannotberegardedasthewayofsages.Contrarytothemindsofmen,menwillnotendureit.ThoughMoTsehimselfmightbeabletoendureit,howistheaversionoftheworldtoittobeovercome?”[48]

TrulytheaversionoftheworldtoMoismhadnotbeenovercome,andpeopleturnedtheirbackfromitafterthedisappearanceoftheenthusiastic,greatpersonalityofMoTsehimself.

But,asalreadynoted,therewasanothermanatthattime,who,althoughdifferentfromMoTse,triedtodeveloptheartlineofChineseideal.HewasSuenTse（298B.C.?—238B.C.?）,whoconsideredhimselfasthetruesuccessorofConfucianism.Hetaughtthathumannatureisabsolutelybadandthattomakeitgoodisthedutyofrulerandteacher.HecondemnedChuangTseas:

“Onewhowasblindedbynatureanddidnotknowhuman.”[49]

Accordingtohisownideal,hewouldconquernatureinsteadofreturningtoit:

“Itisbettertotreatnatureasathingandregulateitthantoconsideritverygreatandalwaysthinkofit.Itisbettertocontrolnatureanduseitthantofollowandadmireit.”[50]

ThisisnearlythesameastheBaconianconceptionofpower.But,unfortunately,hispupilsdidnotdevelophisthoughtalongthisline.Theycarriedouttheirmaster"spoliticalphilosophyandcarriedittoofar.InthethirdcenturyB.C.,ShiHwangTi,orthe“FirstUniversalEmperor,”oftheChinDynasty,unifiedagainwarringstatesintoone,andLiSi,thediscipleofSuenTse,becamethePremier.HehelpedtheEmperorineveryrespecttounifytheempireandcarriedtheauthorityofthegovernmenttoanextreme.Havingabolishedtheexistingfeudalismandthusabsolutelyunifiedtheempirepolitically,hetookastepfarthertounifythepeople"sthought.Heburnedbooks,killedscholars,andorderedthepeopletocometothestateorgovernmentprofessorstolearnthings.Thustheemperorbecameanextremetyrantandthepeoplerebelled.SuenTse"steaching,togetherwiththeChinDynasty,disappearedsoonandforever.

Ⅴ.

AftertheChinDynastythe“art”motiveofChinesethoughtalmostneverreappeared.SooncameBuddhism,whichagainisa“nature”philosophyoftheextremetype.TheChinesemindoscillatedamongTaoism,Confucianism,andBuddhismforalongtime.ItwasnotuntilthetenthcenturyA.D.thatanewgroupofmenofgeniussucceededincombiningthesethree,Taoism,Confucianism,andBuddhism,intoone,andinstillingthenewteachingintotheChinesenationalmind,whichhaspersistedtothepresentday.

BecausethisnewteachingstartedintheSungDynasty,itisknownasthe“LearningofSung.”ThesephilosophersthemselvesclaimedthattheirteachingwasthegenuineConfucianism.ButitmustbeanewConfucianism,ifitisConfucianismatall.MostofitsrepresentativeswereatfirstbelieversinTaoismandBuddhism,andafterwardscamebacktoConfucianism.Thentheypickedfromthe“LiKi”astheirtextbookstwochapters,towhichfewscholarshadpaidanyattentionbeforethattime.Trulyitwastheirmerittocallattentiontothesetwochapters,“TheGreatLearning”and“TheDoctrineofMeanandCommon,”whichembodiedConfucianisminaverysystematicway.Icannotrefrainfromcitingfrom“TheGreatLearning”certainpassages,whichwereregardedtillveryrecenttimebytheChinesepeopleasthesoleaimoflife.Thepassagesare:

“ThedoctrineofTheGreatLearningis:toenlightentheenlightenedvirtue,tomakepeopleloveeachother,andtostopatthesupremegood....Theancientswhowishtoenlightentheenlightenedvirtueintheworldfirstorderedwelltheirownstates.Wishingtoorderwelltheirownstates,theyfirstregulatedtheirownfamilies.Wishingtoregulatetheirownfamilies,theyfirstcultivatedtheirowncharacters.Wishingtocultivatetheirowncharacters,theyfirstrectifiedtheirminds.Wishingtorectifytheirminds,theyfirstsoughttobesincereintheirwishes.Wishingtobesincereintheirwishes,theyfirstextendedtheirwisdom.Suchextensionofwisdomlayintheinvestigationofthings.”[51]

ThisinafewwordsgaveanadmirableexpositionoftheConfucianistaimandartoflife.ThephilosophersofNeo-ConfucianismpickedoutthesepassagesandunconsciouslyreadTaoismandBuddhismintothem.TheydifferedfromtheoriginalConfucianisminthattheysetupwhattheycalledthe“heavenlyreason”asoveragainst“humandesire,”conceptionswhichwerereallysuggestedbytheideasof“Norm”and“Ignorance”inBuddhism,andwereneverspokenofverymuchbeforethisperiod.AccordingtothegenuineConfucianism,aswehaveseen,althoughhumannatureisgood,thegoodisonlyagermora“beginning,”tousethetermofMencius,andmucheffortisneededto“nourish,”to“develop,”andto“complete”it.NowaccordingtoNeo-Confucianism,theheavenlyreason,thoughcoveredbyhumandesires,isasperfectasever,andmenneedonlytoremovethesedesires,andthetruemind,likeadiamond,willshineitself.ThisisverylikewhatLaoTsecalled“todiminish.”YetNeo-ConfucianismdifferedfromTaoismandBuddhismradicallyandattachedthemseriously.Itheldthatinorderto“diminish”humandesireandtorecovertheheavenlyreason,itisnotnecessaryforonetobeinastateofcompletenegationoflife.Whatisnecessaryistoliveaccordingtoreason,anditisonlyinlifethatthereasoncanbefullyrealized.

Nowthesephilosopherssetouttoinvestigatethe“things”oftheabovequotation,andfacedimmediatelythequestion:Whatarethesethings?ThisgaverisetotwotypesofNeo-Confucianism.Theonesaidthatthe“things”areallexternalthingsandaffairs.Itisimpossibletoinvestigateallofthematonce,andnoonecarriedthisinterpretationintopractice,noteventheinterpreter,ChuHe,himself.Theothersaidthat“things”refertophenomenainourmind.Thisinterpretationwasmoresuccessfullycarriedout.Thereweremanysubtleandconvincingargumentsfrombothsides,andallofthemmadesomegreatcontributionstothetheoryandwhatmaybecalledtheartoflife.

ThisperiodofthehistoryofChinesephilosophywasalmostperfectlyanalogoustothatofthedevelopmentofmodernscienceinEuropeanhistory,inthatitsproductionsbecamemoreandmoretechnical,andhadanempiricalbasisandanappliedside.Theonly,butimportant,differencewasthatinEuropethetechniquedevelopedwasforknowingandcontrollingmatter,whileinChinathatdevelopedwasforknowingandcontrollingmind.TothelatertechniqueIndiahasalsomadeagreatcontribution.ButwhiletheIndiantechniquecanbepracticedonlyinthenegationoflife,theChinesetechniquecanbepracticedonlywithinlife.Artsdifferaccordingtothedifferenceofideals.

Butthesecontroversiesarenotimportantforthepresentpurpose.WhatconcernsushereistheidealsthatdirecttheChinesemind,notthemethodsofrealizingthem.Wemay,therefore,saythatsofarastheidealoraimisconcernedalltypesofNeo-Confucianismarethesame:theidealistodiminishthehumandesireinordertorecovertheheavenlyreason,andthatisall.

Ⅵ.

SuchistheChineseideaofgood.InthehistoryofmankindMedievalEuropeunderChristianitytriedtofindgoodandhappinessinHeaven,whileGreecetried,andModernEuropeistryingtofindthemonearth.St.Augustinewishedtorezlizehis“CityofGod,”FrancisBaconhis“KingdomofMan.”ButChina,eversincethedisappearanceofthe“nature”[52]lineofhernationalthought,hasdevotedallherspiritualenergytoanotherline,thatis,tofindgoodandhappinessdirectlyinthehumanmind.Inotherwords,MedievalEuropeunderChristianitytriedtoknowGodandprayedforHishelp;Greecetried,andModernEuropeistryingtoknownatureandtoconquer,tocontrolit;butChinatriedtoknowwhatiswithinourselves,andtofindthereperpetualpeace.

Whatistheuseofscience?ThetwofathersofmodernEuropeanphilosophygavetwoanswers.Descartessaidthatitisforcertainty;Baconsaidthatitisforpower.LetusfirstfollowDescartesandconsiderscienceasforcertainty.Weseeatoncethatifoneisdealingwithone"sownmind,thereisatfirstnoneedofcertainty.BergsonsaysinMindEnergythatEuropediscoveredthescientificmethod,becausemodernEuropeansciencestartedfrommatter.ItisfromthescienceofmatterthatEuropegetsthehabitofprecision,ofexactness,oftheanxietyforproof,andofdistinguishingbetweenwhatissimplypossibleandwhatiscertain.

“Thereforescience,haditbeenappliedinthefirstinstancetothethingsofmind,wouldhaveprobablyremaineduncertainandvague,howeverfaritmayhaveadvanced;itwould,perhaps,neverhavedistinguishedbetweenwhatissimplyplausibleandwhatmustbedefinitelyaccepted.”[53]

SoChinahasnotdiscoveredthescientificmethod,becauseChinesethoughtstartedfrommind,andfromone"sownmind.IsitnecessaryformewhenIamhungrytoprovetomyselfwithroundabout,abstract,scientificmethodthatIamdesiringfood?

Besides,Chinesephilosophersconsideredphilosophyassomethingmostserious.Itisnotforintellectualinformation,itisfordoing.ChuHe,thephilosopherofNeo-Confucianism,saidthatthesageswouldnottellwhatvirtuewaslike;theysimplysakedyoutopracticeit;astheywouldnottellhowsugarwassweet,theysimplyaskedyoutotasteit.InthissensewemaysaythatChinesephilosopherslovedthecertaintyofperception,notthatofconception,andtherefore,theywouldnot,anddidnottranslatetheirconcretevisionintotheformofscience.InonewordChinahasnoscience,becauseofallphilosophiestheChinesephilosophyisthemosthumanandthemostpractical.WhilethephilosophersoftheWestareproudoftheirclearthinkingandscientificKnowledge,theChinesephilosopherwouldsaywithMarcusAurelius:

“Thanks,too,thatinspiteofmyardorforphilosophy,Ididnotfallintothehandsofaprofessor,orsitporingoveressaysorsyllogisms,orbecomeengrossedinscientificspeculations.”[54]

“Nothingismoredishearteningthanthewearyroundofspyinganything,probing（asPindarsays）‘thedepthoftheearth,’guessingandpryingatthesecretsofourneighbors"souls,insteadofrealizingthatitisenoughtokeepsolelytothegodwithin,andtoservehimwithallhonesty....”[55]

But,althoughincomparisonwiththeWestChinaisshortofclearthinking,incompensationshehasmorerationalhappiness.BertrandRussellsaidintheNation（London）thattheChinesepeopleseemtoberationalhedonists,differingfromEuropeansthroughthefactthattheypreferenjoymenttopower.[56]ItisbecauseofthefactthattheChineseidealprefersenjoymenttopowerthatChinahasnoneedofscience,eventhoughscience,accordingtoBacon,isforpower.TheChinesephilosophers,asIsaidjustnow,hadnoneedofscientificcertainty,becauseitwasthemselvesthattheywishedtoknow;sointhesamewaytheyhadnoneedofthepowerofscience,becauseitwasthemselvesthattheywishedtoconquer.Tothemthecontentofwisdomisnotintellectualknowledgeanditsfunctionisnottoincreaseexternalgoods.ToTaoism,externalgoodsseemtobesomethingthatcanonlybringconfusiontoman"smind.ToConfucianism,whiletheyarenotsobadasTaoismsupposes,theyarebynomeanstheessentialsofhumanwelfare.Thenwhatistheuseofscience?

ItseemstomethatiftheChinesepeoplehadfollowedMoTseidentifyinggoodwithuseful,orSuenTsesoastotrytocontrolnatureinsteadofadmiringit,itisverylikelythatChinawouldhaveproducedscienceatasomewhatearlytime.Ofcoursethisisonlyaspeculation.ButthisspeculationisjustifiedbythefactthatinthebooksofMoTseandSuenTsewedofindthegermsofscience.Unfortunatelyoffortunatelythis“art”lineofChinesethoughtwasconqueredbyitsopponents.Whatistheuseofscience,ifintellectualcertaintyandthepowertoconquertheexternalworldarenotincludedintheideaofgood?

Onequestionmayberaised:WhycouldEuropeturnitsattentionfromheaventoearth,whereasChinaatthesametimecouldnotturnfromtheinternaltotheexternal?TothisIanswer:NomatterwhetherthepeopleofEuropetriedtofindgoodandhappinessinheavenorinearth,theirphilosophiesallbelongtowhatIcalledthelineof“art.”BeforetheestablishmentofChristianity,Stoicism,whichseemstometobethe“nature”lineofEuropeanthought,taughtmantoservehisgodwithin.ButthencameChristianity,whichtaughtmantoservehisGodwithout.Manwasnolongeraself-sufficientbeing,butasinner.AccordinglytheEuropeanmindoccupieditselfinprovingtheexistenceofGod.PhilosophersproveditwiththeAristotelianlogicandbythestudyofnaturalphenomena.Philosophyandscience,accordingtomostphilosophersofscholasticism,evenRogerBacon,wereneededtoexplainthecontentsoftheScripture.ModernEuropehascontinuedthisspiritofknowingandprovingtheoutside,onlychangingGodfor“Nature,”creationformechanism—thatisall.Thereisacontinuationofhistory,butnocleardemarcationbetweenmedievalandmodernEurope.Bothtrytoknowtheoutsideworld.Theyfirsttrytoknowit,andaftergettingacquaintedwithit,theytrytoconquerit.Sotheyareboundtohavesciencebothforcertaintyandforpower.Theyareboundtohavescience,becausetheyallsupposethathumannatureisimperfectinitself.Menareweak,foolish,andhelpless.Inordertobeperfect,strong,andwise,theyneedsomethingthatistobeaddedartificially.Theyneedknowledgeandpower.Theyneedsociety,state,law,andvirtue.BesidestheyneedthehelpofapersonifiedGod.ButhowaboutwhatIcalledthe“nature”lineofthought?Ifeverythinggoodisalreadyinusforalleternity,whatusetosearchforhappinessintheexternalworld?WillthatnotbelikewhattheBuddhistsaidaboutabeggaraskingforfoodwithagoldenbowl?Whatistheuseofscientificcertaintyandpower?

Tospeakofthingsinabstractandgeneraltermsisalwaysdangerous.ButhereIcannotrefrainfromsayingthattheWestisextension,theEastisintension;andthattheWestemphasizeswhatwehave,theEastemphasizeswhatweare.Thequestionastohowtoreconcilethesetwosothathumanitymaybehappybothinbodyandinmindisatpresentdifficulttoanswer.Anyway,theChineseconceptionoflifemaybemistaken,buttheChineseexperiencecannotbeafailure.Ifmankindshallafterwardsbecomewiserandwiser,andthinkthattheyneedpeaceandhappinessintheirmind,theymayturntheirattentionto,andgainsomethingfrom,theChinesewisdom.Iftheyshallnotthinkso,themindenergyoftheChinesepeopleoffourthousandyearswillyetnothavebeenspentinvain.Thefailureitselfmaywarnourchildrentostopsearchingforsomethinginthebarrenlandofhumanmind.ThisisoneofChina"scontributionstomankind.

Yu-lanFung.

COLUMBIAUNIVERSITY.

ReprintedfromTheInternationalJournalofEthics,Vol.ⅩⅩⅩⅡ,No.3,April,1922.

[1]InpublishingthispaperItaketheopportunitytothankmanymembersofthefacultyofthePhilosophyDepartmentofColumbiaUniversityforencouragementandhelp.ByscienceImeanthesystematicknowledgeofnaturalphenomenaandoftherelationsbetweenthem.ThusitistheshorttermforNaturalScience.

[2]TheNewRepublic,Vol.XXV,1920,NewYork,p.188.Vol.XXXII—No.3.

[3]Fromthechapterentitled“TheAutumnFloods.”ComparewithH.A.Giles"translationinhisbook,ChuangTsu,Mystic,Moralist,andSocialReformer.London,1889,p.211.

[4]JamesLegge"stranslation,withsomemodification.SeetheChineseClassics,seconded.,London,1895,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.282—83.

[5]JamesLegge"stranslation,withsomemodification.SeetheChineseClassicsVol.Ⅱ,pp.464—465.

[6]The“li”isaboutone-thirdofanEnglishmile.

[7]H.A.Giles"translation.SeehisChuangTsu,etc.,pp.1—2.

[8]Fromthechapterentitled“TheJoinedToes.”SeeGiles"ChuangTsu,etc.,p101.

[9]Fromthechapter,“YangChu,”intheworkofLiehTse.

[10]Fromthechapterentitled“TheWayofNature.”SeeGiles"ChuangTsu，etc.,p.167.

[11]LionelGiles:TheSayingsofLaoTsu,p.44.

[12]Ibid.,p.38.

[13]JamesLegge:TheTextsofTaoism（intheSacredBooksoftheEastSeries）.London,1891,Pt.I,p.70.

[14]Ibid.,p.38.

[15]Fromthechapteron“TheGreatMaster,”JamesLegge"sTextsofTaoism,Pt.I,p.249.

[16]Fromthechapteron“NourishingtheEssenceofLife.”Ibid.,p.198.

[17]LionelGiles:TheSayingsofLaoTsu,p.44.

[18]JamesLegge:TheTextsofTaoism,Pt.I,p.90.

[19]Fromthechapteron“TheIdentityofContraries,”H.A.Giles:ChuangTsu,etc.,p.20.

[20]Fromthefirstofthetwochapterson“Definitions.”

[21]Fromthefirstofthethreechapterson“TheAbsurdityofPredestination.”

[22]UptothepresenttimethereisnoEnglishtranslationofthebookbearingMoTse"sname.ButthesethreechaptersonuniversalloveweretranslatedbyJamesLeggeintheintroductiontotheworkofMencius.SeetheChineseClassics,Vol.Ⅱ,pp.108—111.

[23]Fromthefirstofthethreechapterson“ThePreferenceofUniformity.”

[24]Fromthechapteron“WhatIsDyed.”

[25]Fromthefirstofthethreechapterson“TheAbsurdityofPredestination.”

[26]Fromthefirstofthethreechapterson“TheEconomyofExpenditure.”

[27]Ibid.,secondchapter.

[28]Fromthechapteron“AgainstMusic.”

[29]Fromthechapteron“TheEconomyofBurying.”

[30]Fromthechapteron“TheEliminationofBlindness”intheworkofSuenTse.

[31]Fromthechapter“LuWen.”

[32]Allareselectedfromthefirstofthetwochapterson“Definitions.”

[33]JamesLegge:ChineseClassics,Vol.Ⅱ,p.371.

[34]JamesLegge:ChineseClassics,Vol.Ⅱ,p.476.