AmongthephilosophicschoolsofancientChina,theJu（theConfucianistSchools）andtheMo（theMohistSchools）werethemostinfluential.Theywerenotonlyphilosophicschoolsinthetechnicalsense,butalsoleadingforcesofpoliticalandsocialmovements.TheyweretoacertainextentthemakersofChinesehistory.Butthemakersofhistorywerealsomadebyhistory.Theyweretheproductofthesocialcircumstancesoftime,notsimplythecreationofthegeniusoftheirleaders.Theirleaders,suchasConfuciusandMoTzu,certainlyhadtheirroletoplay,buttheremustbesomethingalreadytheretoserveasthebasisfortheirthoughtandaction.Fromnothing,nothingcouldbecreated.InthefollowingweshallattempttoshowthesocialoriginoftheJuandtheMo，tofindout,sofaraswecan,thesocialcircumstancesthatwereresponsiblefortheproductionofthetwoschools.
Inordertosimplifyourdiscussion,letusstartfromsomethingthatweshalltakeforgranted.InourpresentknowledgeofancientChinesehistory,thereissomethingaboutthevalidityofwhichonewillraisenoquestion,ifonefollowscloselytherecentdevelopmentinthestudyofChinesehistory.LetustakeforgrantedthatintheChouDynasty,thesocialandpoliticalorganizationofthetimewas,essentiallyanaristocracy.Thearistocratswerethepoliticalandeconomiclordsofthecommonpeople,andalsothepossessorsofknowledgeandculture.Theymaintaineddifferentsortsofspecialistswhoservedastheofficialsoftheirgovernments.Boththearistocratsandthespecialistsheldtheirpositionshereditarily.Generationsaftergenerationsthearistocratsgovernedandthespecialistsassistedthemtogovern.
Forreasonswhichweshallnotdiscusshere,theancientaristocracybrokedownatthemiddlepartoftheChouDynasty.ThestateofconfusioninthelaterpartoftheChouDynastyasdescribedbytheChinesehistorianswassimplythesymptomofthebreakdown.Withthisbreakdown,therewerethearistocrats,who,havinglosttheirpositionandfortune,couldnolongeraffordtomaintaintheirspecialists.Thespecialistswhowereformerofficialsmaintainedbythearistocrats,nowlosttheiroccupationsandscatteredamongthecommonpeople.AsConfuciusremarked:
Thegrandmusicmaster,Che,wenttoTse.Themasterofthebandatthesecondmeal（oftheprince）,Kan,wenttoChu.Theband-masteratthethirdmeal,Liao,wenttoTsai.Theband-masteratthefourthmeal,Kuch,wenttoChin.Thedrum-master,Fang-shuwithdrewtotheneighbourhoodoftheYellowRiver.Themasterofthehand-drum,Wu,withdrewtotheneighbourhoodoftheRiverHan.Theassistantmusic-master,Yang,andthemasterofmusicalstones,Hsiang,wenttotheneighbourhoodofthesea.[1]
Thisremarkservedasanexampleofthescatteringofthespecialists.Thisstateofaffairswasindicatedbysayingsoftheancienthistorianssuchas:“Theofficialslosttheiroccupations,”and“Theculturewaslost,butonecanfinditinthecountry.”
Thearistocratscouldnotmaintainthespecialists,buttheystillneededthem.Theyneededthemfortheeducationoftheiryoungandonsuchoccasionsastheperformingofceremonies.They,therefore,continuedtopractisetheiroldprofessions.Butatformertimestheywereofficialsmaintainedbythearistocrats,nowtheyhadtoworkfortheirlivingfromtimetotimeasprofessionalsinliberalprofessions.Therewerealsothearistocratsortheirlivingbysellingwhattheyhadreceivedintheirearlyeducation.Theythusalsopractisedasortofliberalprofessionandrankedthemselvesonthesamelevelwiththeotherwanderingspecialists.Confuciushimselfwasanexampleofsuchdescendantsofformeraristocrats.
Thesewanderingspecialistsmaybedividedintotwogroups:theliteraryandthechivalrous.Theoneconsistsoftheprofessionalsofceremonyandmusic,thespecialistsforpeace,theotherofthatoffighting,thespecialistsforwar.TheJuwereoftheformergroup.Thus“DukeLingofWeiaskedConfuciusabouttactics;Confuciusreplied‘Ihaveheardallaboutsacrificialceremonies,butaboutmilitarymattersIlearnednothing.’”[2]HewasoneoftheJu，andthereforewasaspecialistforpeace,notforwar.
AmongtheJugroup,thereweresomewhowerenotsatisfiedwiththepracticeoftheirprofession,buthadthefurtherambitionofsettingtheworldinorder.Theygavetheirceremonyandmusicrationalbasisandthoughttheycouldbetheinstrumentsforchangingtheworld.FromthesemensprangtheJuschool.TheJuasaschoolofphilosophywasoriginatedfromtheJuasaprofession,buttheformerwasnotthesameasthelatter.WedonotknowwhowereamongthefirstoftheJuasaprofession,butitiscertainthatConfuciuswasthefirstwhofoundtheJuasaschoolofphilosophy.ItisnaturalthatatlatertimesConfuciusbecameTheTeacher，whentheJuphilosophybecametheorthodoxteachingofthestate.
ThusfromtheliterarygroupoftheprofessionalspecialiststheJuasaschoolofphilosophywasoriginated.Nomoreproofneedbecitedtosupportthistheory,sinceaboutitthereisnolongeranyseriousdispute.InthefollowingIshallattempttoshowthat,inthesameway,fromthechivalrousgroupoftheprofessionalspecialists,theMoortheMohistschooloriginated.
HowdoweknowthattheMohistschooloriginatedfromthechivalrousgroupoftheprofessionalspecialists,theprofessionalfighters?OrindeedhowdoweknowthatinancientChinatherewassuchagroupatall?Thereismuchevidence.WelearnfromtheHuaiNanTzu（BookofPrinceHuaiNan）that“MoTzu,thefounderoftheMohistschool,hadonehundredandeightymenathisservice,allreadytogotofireorwaterathiscommand.”[3]FromthiswecanseethatthegroupledbyMoTzuwaswellknownforitsfightingspirit.IntheMo-Tzuonepassagereads:
KungShu-panhadcompletedtheconstructionofCloud-laddersforthestateofChuandwasgoingtoattackthestateofSungwiththem.MoTzuheardofitandsetoutfromChi.HewalkedtendaysandtennightsandarrivedatYing,thecapitaloftheChustate....ThenhetoldtheKingofChu,saying:“MydisciplesnumberingthreehundredarealreadyarmedwithmyimplementsofdefencewaitingonthecitywallofSungforyourinvasion.”[4]
Inthesamebookanotherpassagereads:
TherewasamaninLuwhosenthissontoMoTzufortutoring.Thesonperishedinabattle.ThefatherblamedMoTzuforit.MoTzusaid:“Youwantedtohaveyoursontrained.Nowhehadcompletedhistraininganddiedinabattle.Andyoubecomesore.Thisisliketryingtosellyourgrain,andyetbecomingsorewhenitissold.”[5]
ThesepassagesshowclearlythatMoTzuandhisdisciplesparticipatedininter-statewars,andhisdisciplesweretrainedforsuchparticipation.
InthesamebookwealsohaveevidencetoshowthatMoTzu"sadvicetotheprinceswassometimesmadefromamilitarypointofview.ThusMoTzusaid:
Therearesevencauseofworrytoastateandtheyare:（1）Whentheouterandintercitywallsarenotdefensible;（2）Whentheenemystateisapproachingandone"sneighboursdonotcometorescue;...（5）WhenthePrinceisoverconfidentofhisownwisdomandholdsnoconsultation,whenhefeelsheissecureandmakesnopreparationsforattack,andwhenhedoesnotknowthathemustbewatchfulwhileneighboursareplanningagainsthim....Withthesesevencausepresentinthemaintenanceofastate,thestatewillperish,andinthedefenceofacity,thecitywillbereducedtoruinbytheapproachingenemy.[6]
Itistobenoticedthatamongthesevencause,threearemilitaryones.Inthesamebookanotherpassagereads:
MoTzusaidtoKungLiangHuanTzu:“Wefindinyourhousehundredsofdecoratedvehicles,hundredsofhorsesfedongrain,andhundredsofwomenclothedwithfineryandembroidery.Iftheexpendituresforthedecorationofthevehicles,forfoodtothehorses,andfortheembroideredclothesareusedtomaintainsoldiers,thereshouldbemorethanathousand.Atthetimeofemergency,severalhundredofthemcanbestationedatthevanandseveralhundredintherear.Todothisortolettheseveralhundredwomenholdthevanandtherear.Todothisortolettheseveral?Ishouldthinktokeepwomanisnotsosecureastomaintainsoldiers.”[7]
ThisshowsthatMoTzuencouragedtheprincesorfeudallordstomakemilitarypreparations.
HereweseethedifferencebetweenMoTzuandConfucius.Confucius“learnednothingaboutmilitarymatters,”but,judgingfromwhatwehavecitedabove,MoTzuwasamilitaryexpert.IntheMo-tzu,therearetwentychaptersdevotedtothediscussionofdefensivewarfare,thoughsomeofthemhavenowbeenlost.ThesewerewhattheMohistsspecializedin,justasceremonyandmusicwerewhattheJuspecializedin.
ThoughtheJuandtheMoweredifferent,theybothwereprofessionalspecialists,seekingforemploymenttomaketheirliving.AsMenciussaid:
WhenConfuciuswasnotemployedbysomerulerforthreemonths,helookeddisappointedandunhappy.Whenhepassedovertheborderofastate,hewassuretocarrywithhimthepropergiftofintroduction.[8]
Hesaidagain:“Amongtheancients,whenonewasthreemonthswithoutbeingemployedbysomeruler,hewascondoledwith.”[9]Hesaidagain:“Thelossofhisplacetoanofficerislikethelossofhisstatetoaprince.”[10]ThisshowshowtheJuwereanxioustoseekemployment.TheMohistswerealsoseekingemployment.IntheLu-shihChun-chiuastorywastoldaboutoneofthelaterleadersoftheMohists,MengShen.MengShenwasentrustedbyafeudallordYangChen-chuntoguardhisfief,andwastoldnottosurrenderitwithouttheproperidentificationfromthelord.ThenYangChen-chunwasinvolvedinacourtintrigueandfledtoanothercountry.TheKingofChuconfiscatedthefief.MengShensaid:“IwasentrustedbytheLordwiththefiefandwasorderednottosurrenderwithouttheproperidentificationfromtheLord,anditisbeyondmypowertostopthem.Ihavenootherchoicebuttodie.”OneofhisdisciplesHsuJuehtriedtostophimbysayingtoMengShen:“Youshoulddie,ifyourdeathwouldbeusefultoYangChen-chun.NowithasnousetoYangChen-chunatall,butwithyourdeaththeteachingoftheMohistswouldcertailysufferinterruption.Thereforeyoushouldnotdie.”TothisMengShensaid:“MyrelationtoYangChen-chunisthatbetweenfriendsifnotthatbetweenateacherandhisdisciple;itisthatbetweenaLordandhissubordinateifnotthatbetweenfriends.IfIshouldnotdieforhim,thenafterwards,thosewhowanttohavearigorousteacherwouldnotseekforhimamongtheMohists;thosewhowanttohaveafaithfulfriendwouldnotseekforhimamongtheMohists;andthosewhowanttohavealoyalsubordinatewouldnotseekforhimamongtheMohists.Forme,therefore,todieistorealizetheteachingoftheMohistsandtoexpandtheirinfluence.”Hediedforhisfaith,andthediscipleswhodiedwiththemasternumberedeighty-three.[11]ThisshowsthattheMohistswereverystrictinkeepingtheirword.Theywerecarefulnottogiveabadimpressiontopeople,because,ifsotheywouldbeconsideredasunreliableandthefutureMohistswouldfinddifficultyseekingemployment.
Thusitbecameatraditionalmoralitythatwhenonewasentrustedbyotherstoperformaservice,onemusttryone"sbesttofulfilhistrust.Evendeathwillnotcompelhimtodootherwise.“Amanwoulddieforhimwhoadmiresherbeauty”—asanancientdictumgoes.
TheJualsoputemphasisonthismorality.Thus,TsengTzu,oneofthedisciplesofConfucius,said:
Heisasuperiormanwhocanbeentrustedwiththechargeofayoungorphanprince,andcanbecommissionedwithauthorityoverastateofonehundredli,andwhomnoemergencyhowevergreatcancompelhimtoyieldhisstand.Heisasuperiormanindeed.[12]
TheTsoChuangaveadetailedreportofthedeathofTzuLu,anotherdiscipleofConfucius.TzuLuwasthe“familyminister”ofKungKwei,theministeroftheWeistate.WhenKungKweiwaskidnappedbyadeposedsuccessortothethroneinordertoeffectarestoration,TzuLurushedtorescue.“Hewasgoingtoenterthecity,whenhemetTzuKau,anotherdiscipleofConfucius,whowasabouttoleaveitandsaidtohim:‘Thegateisshut.’‘ButIwishtotrytogothere,’repliedTzuLu.‘Itwasnotyourdoing,"saidTzuKau,‘youneednotshareinthismisfortune.’‘Ihaveeatenhispay,’rejoinedtheother,‘andIwillnottrytoescapefromhisdifficulties.’TzuLuenteredthecityandwenttothetowerwheretheprinceandKungKweiweredetained.HetriedtoburnthetowerinordertoforcetheprincetoreleaseKungKwei.Theprincethensentdowntwomen“toresistTzuLu,whomtheystruckwiththeirspears,cuttingalsothestringsofhiscap.‘Thesuperiorman,"saidhe,‘doesnotlethiscapfalltothegroundwhenhedies.’Hetiedhisstringsagainanddied.WhenConfuciusheardofthedisorderinWei,hesaid:‘Chai(TzuKau)willcomeback,butYu(TzuLu)willdiethere.’”[13]ThusTzuLudiedwiththesamespiritasMengShen,theMohistleader.
Butonthispoint,theJuseemednottobeasstrictastheMo.ThusMenciussaid:“Sometimesitispropertosacrificeone"slife;sometimesitisnot.Tosacrificewhenitisnotproper,iscontrarytobravery.”[14]TheConfucianistsemphasizedthedoctrineof“GoldenMean,”whichteachesthattherightthingmustbedoneintherightplaceattherighttime;thereisnofixedruleforthechangingcircumstances.Thereforeintheaboveexample,TzuKauandTzuLutookdifferentactions,andConfuciusseemedtoapprovebothofthem.
AlthoughtheMooriginatedfromthechivalrousgroupoftheprofessionalspecialist,theyinmanyrespectsdifferedfromthem.ThedifferencesbetweentheMoandtheordinarychivalryamounttothreepoints.
ThefirstpointisthattheMohistsparticipatedonlyinwarswhichconformedtotheirprinciple.MoTzutaughtthecondemnationofoffensivewars,sotheMohiststookpartonlyinwarsthatweredefensive.TheyonlyfoughtforSung,butnotforChu.IntheMoTzu,MoTzufoughtforSung,butnotforChu.IntheMoTzuonlytheimplementsandthestrategyfordefensivewarwerediscussed.
ThesecondpointisthatMoTzualsotaughttheprincipleofgovernment.InthisrespectMoTzuwasinfluencedbyConfucius.ThereforeitissaidintheHuaiNanTzuthat“MoTzulearnedfromtheJuandreceivedtheteachingofConfucius.”[15]
ThethirdpointisthatMoTzusystematizedandrationalizedthemoralitywhichtheordinarychivalrymaintainedandpractised.Healsoattemptedtouniversalizeitasthecommonstandardofactionforallpeople.Thispointweshalldiscusspresently.
Aswehavesaidintheabove,boththeliteraryandthechivalrousgroupsoftheprofessionalspecialistswerethemembersofsocietywholosttheiroccupationsinthebreakdownoftheancientaristocracy.Afterwardstherecruitsoftheformergroupcameusuallyfromtheupperandmiddleclassesofthesociety,whilethatofthelattergroupusuallyfromthelowerclass.AgreaterpartoftheteachingofConfuciusandMenciuswasconcernedwiththemaintainingofthetraditionalceremoniesandinstitutions.Theythustookapointofviewnearertothatoftheupperclass.But,MoTzu"steachingwasdifferent.IntheMoTzu,onepassagereads:
MoTzutravelledsouthtoChutointerviewtheKingofthatstate.TheKingrefusedtoseehimwiththeexcuseofhisbeingold,andletMuHoreceivehim.MoTzutalkedtoMuHo,andthelatterwasgreatlypleased.HesaidtoMoTzu,“Yourideasarecertainlygood.ButourKingisthegreatkingoftheworld.Iamafraidthathewillrefusetoconsiderthembecausetheyarethatofthehumblemen.”[16]
ThisshowsthattheteachingofMoTzuwasnearertothepointofviewofthelowerclass.
ThemostfamousteachingofMoTzuistheteachingofuniversallove.Theessenceofthisteachingisthemoralityofmutualhelp.AsMoTzusaid:
Whenwesetupuniversallovesasthemoralstandard,thosewhocanhearandseewillhearandseeforoneanother,thosewhocanworkwillworkforoneanother,andthosewhohaveknowledgewillmutuallyteachoneanother.Thustheoldwhohaveneitherwifenorchildrenwillhavethesupportandsupplytospendtheiroldagewith,andtheyoungwhohaveneitherfatherandmotherwillhavethecareandadmonitiontogrowupin.[17]
Thisteachingseemedtooriginatefromthemoralitythat“friendshaveeverythingincommon”asmaintainedandpractisedbythechivairousgroup.ThegroupledbyMoTzucertainlymaintainedandpractisedthismorality.IntheMo-tzuonepassagereads:
MoTzuhadrecommendedhisdiscipleKengChuTzutoChu.SomeotherdisciplesofMoTzuvisitedhim.Theywerenotgenerallyentertained.ThedisciplesreturnedandreportedtoMoTzu,saying:“ItisofnousetousforKengChuTzutobeinChu.Whenwevisitedhim,wewerenotwellentertained.”MoTzusaid:“Youcannottellasyet.”Soonafter,KengChuTzusentMoTzusomemoney,saying,“Yourdisciplesendsyouthismoneywhichhehopesyouwilluse.”ThereuponMoTzusaid“So,indeedwecannottell.”[18]
ThisshowsthatinthegroupledbyMoTzu“friendshadeverythingincommon.”TheConfucianistscmphasizedfamilyrelations.Fromtheirpointofview,therefore,whenMoTzu"steachingprevails,“therewillbenoplaceforthepeculiaraffectionduetothefather.”[19]
AnotherimportantteachingofMoTzuisthe“agreementwiththesuperior,”whichishispoliticalphilosophy.MoTzuthoughtthatintheprimitiveworld,whentherewasneitherrulernorgovernment,theworldwasingreatdisorder.“Peopleknewthatdisorderwasduetothefactthattherewasnoruler.Theythereforechosetheinsufficiencyofhiscapacity,theemperorchosethevituousintheworldandinstalledthemastheministers....Whentherulerswereinstalled,theemperorissuedamandatetoallthepeople,saying:“Uponhearinggoodoreviloneshallreportittothesuperior.Whatthesuperiorshouldthinktoberight,allshallthinktoberight.Whatthesuperiorthinktobewrongallshallthinktobewrong.”[20]Thismoralityofabsoluteobediencetothesuperiorseemedalsotobeoriginatedfromthemoralitymaintainedandpractisedbythechivalrousgroup.ThegroupledbyMoTzucertainlymaintainedandpractisedthismorality.AccordingtotheLu-shihChun-chiu，thesonofFuKuan,whowasoneofthelaterleadersoftheMohists,killedaman.SeeingthatFuKuanhadthisonlyson,theKingpardonedtheoffender.ButFuKuanexplainedtotheKingthataccordingtotherulesoftheMohists,hissonmustbeexecuted.“Thoughyouhaveorderedyourofficersnottoexecutemyson,IwillexecutehimaccordingtotheruleoftheMohists.”Hedidwhathesaid.[21]ThisshowshowrigidwasthedisciplineoftheMohists.InthepoliticalphilosophyoftheConfucianists,therelationbetweentheprinceandthesubjectsisanalogoustothatbetweenfatherandson.SointhepoliticalphilosophyoftheConfucianists,affectionismoreemphasizedthanseverediscipline.
ThesayingofMoTzuthatthepeople“chosethevirtuousinthewordandcrownedhimemperor”hasbeeninterpretedbysomewritersastheexpressionofMoTzu"sdemocraticideainpolitics.Otherwriterswereskepticalinregardtothisinterpretation,because,theythought,thedemocraticideathatthegovernmentwasoriginatedbypopularelectioncouldnotbeoriginatedinanenvironmentinwhichtherewasnothingtosuggestthisidea.ButifweknowthattheMohistsoriginatedfromthechivalrousgroup,wecanseetherewassomethingtosuggestthisidea.WeknowthattheMohistsgrouphadaleaderwhowasthedictatorofthegroup.Theleadercouldappointhissuccessor,butthefirstleadersuchasMoTzuhimselfmightbeelectedbythemembersofthegroup.Thispracticeiswellknowninthechivalrousgroupsoflatertimes.
ThebeliefoftheexistenceofapersonalGod,andthatofghostsandspiritswhocanrewardthegoodandpunishthebad,isthebeliefofthelowerclassofsociety.InMoTzu"stime,becauseofthefactthatthesocietyasawholewaschanging,theoldbeliefsalsobecameshaken.AccordingtoMoTzuthedisorderofthetimewasduetotheshakingoftheoldbeliefs,hethereforetriedtorestorethem,justastheConfucianiststhoughtthatthedisorderofthetimewasduetothebreakdownoftheoldinstitutions,andtriedtorestorethem.IntheMo-tzutherearechapterson“thewillofGod”andon“theexistenceofghosts.”BoththeMohistsandtheConfucianistsdidnotrealizethatthebreakdownoftheoldbeliefsandtheoldinstitutionsweretheresultsofsocialchange,butnotitscause.InthisrespectboththeMohistsandtheConfucianistswereconservatives.
MoTzu"steachingofsimplicityinfuneralceremoniesandbrevityinthemourningperiodalsocamefromthepointofviewofthelowerclassofsociety.TheoldinstitutionsofelaboratefuneralandextendedperiodofmourningassupportedbytheConfucianistsneededchangeespeciallyfromthepointofviewofthelowerclass.Theproletariansnaturallyarepoorandhavetoworkdaybydayfortheirliving.Theycannotdoastherichwhohavemoneyforelaboratefuneralsandleisureforextendedperiodsofmourning.FromthispointofviewMoTzutaughtthesimplicityoffuneralandtheshortperiodofmourningtoreplacetheoldinstitutions.
FromthesamepointofviewMoTzucondemnedmusicandluxury.HeretheMohistswereagaininoppositiontotheConfucianists,whothoughtthatceremonies,andtoacertainextentluxury,areneededtomakethedistinctionbetweenthehigherandthelower,betweenthesuperiormanandthesmallman.
TheMohistswerealsospecialistsinmanufacturingtheimplementsforwar,thoughtonlyfordefensivewar.WehaveseenthatMoTzu,indefendingSungagainsttheinvasionofChu,senthisdisciplestoSungwithhisimplementsofdefence.ThesamestorytellsusthatingoingtoChutopersuadetheKingnottoinvadeSung,MoTzucalleduponKungShu-pan,theengineerwhomadetheCloud-laddersforattackingSung.“MoTzuuntiedhisbelt,”asthestorygoes,“andlaidoutacitywithit,anduesdasmallstickforaweapon.KungShu-pansetoutninedifferentmachinesforattack.MoTzurepulsedhimninetimes.KungShu-panwasatendwithhismachinesofattack,whileMoTzuwasfarfrombeingexhaustedincontrivancesofdefence.”[22]Formanufacturingmachinesorimplements,theMohistshadtoknowsomethingaboutphysicsandmathematics.TheydidhavesomeknowledgeintheserespectsasweseeintheMo-tzu.
FromwhatissaidaboveweseethereasonswhyConfucianistsandtheMohistsdifferedandalwaysstoodinopposition.Inancienttimes,MoTzuhadareputationandinfluenceequaltothatofConfucius,becausetheybothrepresentedschools,eachofwhichhaditsownsocialbackground,andeachwasalivingsocialforce.WemayalsosimilarlyexplainthefactthatsincetheHanDynasty,ConfucianismwasupheldwhileMohistsweresuppressed.Thereasonisthattherulingclassneededaphilosophythatstandsforthehigherclassofsociety.But,thoughMohismwassuppressed,thechivalrousgroupscontinuetoexist,whichwecanfindeventoday,ifonlywecanhavearealcontactwiththelowerpartofoursociety.
ReprintedfromTheChineseSocialandPoliticalScienceReview，19-2.
[1]AnalectsofConfucius,BK.XVIII,Chap.IX,Sec.1-5.
[2]AnalectsofConfucius,BK.XX,Chap.I,Sec.1.
[3]HuaiNanTsu,Chap.XX.
[4]Mo-tzu,Chap.L;cf.TheWorksofMoTzu,tr.byY.P.Mei,pp.257-258.
[5]Id.,Chap.XLIX,cf.Mei,op.cit.p.248.
[6]Mo-tzu,Chap.V,cf.Mei,op.cit.pp.17-18.
[7]Id.,Chap.XLVII,cf.Mei,op.cit.p.227.
[8]Mencius,BK,IIIPt.II,Chap.III,Sec.1.
[9]Ibid.
[10]Id.,Sec.3.
[11]“ShangTai,”Lu-shihChun-chiu.
[12]Analects,Bk.Ⅷ,Chap.Ⅵ.
[13]“TheFifteenthYearofDukeAi.”TsoChuan,cf.Legge"stranslation,ChineseClassics,vol.Ⅴ,Pt.Ⅱ,p.843.
[14]Mencius,Bk.Ⅳ,Pt.Ⅱ,Chap.ⅩⅩⅢ.
[15]HuaiNanTzu,Chap.Ⅹ.
[16]Mo-Tzu,Chap.XLVII,cf.TheWorksofMoTzu,translatedbyY.P.Mei,p.223.
[17]Mo-tzu,Chap.XVI,cf.Mei,op.cit.P.89.
[18]Id.,Chap.XLVI,cf.Mei,op.cit.P.214.
[19]Mencius,BK.III,Pt.II,Chap.IX.Sec.9.
[20]Mo-tzu,Chap.XVI,cf.Mei,op.cit.P.56.
[21]“ChuHsi,”Lu-shihChun-chiu.
[22]Mo-Tzu,Chap.L.cf.Meiop.cit.p.259.
